From Poison to Possibility: The Science and Future of Venom

Written By: Tara Gandhi 

Reference Paper: Utkin, Yuri N. Animal Venom Studies: Current Benefits and Future Developments. World Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 6, no. 2, 2015, pp. 28–33. PubMed Central (PMC4436903), https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4436903/.

Image of Snake venom

Introduction

This article will explore the composition, uses and further studies of venom. 

A single drop of venom can stop a heart, but that same drop could also one day save one. The dual destructive and healing nature of venom has made it a captivating object of study for scientists throughout history. Once regarded as nature's deadliest weapons, it is rapidly becoming one of medicine's most promising tools. That is why understanding animal venoms not only saves lives through better antivenoms but also opens pathways to new medicines and scientific discoveries.

 Overview

Venom is a biologically produced toxin, injected through a bite or sting to immobilise prey or defend against predators. It is composed of proteins and peptides (shorter chains of amino acids while proteins are…), and a single venom may contain hundreds of distinct toxins, each acting on different body systems. Common examples of venomous creatures include King Cobras and scorpions, whose venom can disrupt nervous, cardiovascular, muscular, and blood-clotting functions. Moreover, severe envenomation (the process by which venom is injected by the bite or sting of a venomous animal)can lead to serious illness or death.

Composition of Venom

A complex mixture of substances, venom contains enzymes such as proteases, oxidases, and hyaluronidases that degrade tissues and connective tissue, damage cells, and facilitate rapid systemic spread. It also includes many non‑enzymatic proteins, such as disintegrins, which interfere with blood clotting; inhibitors that block essential protective enzymes in the victim; and several growth factors that can disrupt regular tissue repair, blood vessels, and immune responses, preventing recovery. Venom peptides also add another layer of complexity, as some combat microbes, others modulate immune responses, and many are highly specialised toxins that interact with the body’s communication systems.

These components then produce powerful biological effects that can lead to severe complications. Neurotoxins present in the venom interfere with nerve signalling, which can lead to paralysis and even breathing failure. Further, venom contains hemotoxins that damage blood and vessels, causing severe bleeding or uncontrolled clotting, while cytotoxins destroy local tissues and may lead to necrosis (premature, uncontrolled death of living body tissue). When these toxin types act together, they overwhelm multiple organs at once, which results in a deadly and systemic condition. 

Method of storage and delivery

This composition of substances is stored either permanently or periodically in specialised tissues, and its location varies across animals. The glands that secrete venom, as well as the method of its delivery, differ widely among groups. For example, coelenterates, such as jellyfish and sea anemones, possess stinging cells called nematocysts, whereas arthropods, such as scorpions, bees, and spiders, have venom glands connected to stingers or fangs. In many fish, including lionfish and stonefish, the glands are linked to sharp fin or gill spines, whereas in snakes and other reptiles, the venom is produced in glands that inject toxin through bites or punctures. 

Some species can also store venom within body tissues, such as the skin of poison dart frogs and pufferfish. 

Applications

Since ancient times, venom has been used in remedies like theriac (an antidote for poisons). In the 19th century, small venom doses were found to produce protective antibodies, leading to antivenom. Some other early medical uses, like remedies for pain or epilepsy, were unreliable; however, they have been developed over time.

Venoms are useful in scientific research because the toxins they contain only act on certain cells and proteins in the human body, enabling scientists to investigate the functions of those cells under various conditions. For example, there is a toxin called α-bungarotoxin , and it is used to study how proteins on nerve and muscle cells communicate with each other. Similarly, another toxin called α-Conotoxins, allows scientists to distinguish between different types of nerve receptors that transmit information, and can help them study how they work. Lastly, snake venom toxins are used to investigate how blood clots, and helps researchers study how the body forms or prevents clots. 

Venoms are also commonly used to develop medicines as they contain molecules that act very specifically in the body to produce a desired effect.For example, Captopril® and Enalapril® (both derived from pit viper venom) treat high blood pressure, whereas Integrilin® (eptifibatide) and Aggrastat® (tirofiban) prevent blood clots and heart attacks. Researchers are also exploring venom-based treatments for cancer, autoimmune diseases, pain management, and fibrin sealants (products used to promote blood clotting during surgery).

Antivenom is also made through the injection of small, safe doses of venom into animals (usually horses) so that their bodies produce antibodies that can be used to bind to and neutralise venom toxins from bites or sting. The antibodies produced by the animals are collected, purified, and used as a treatment for humans. Antivenom is effective because it directly neutralises venom, preventing severe illness or death from envenomation. However, it is often region-specific because venom composition varies by habitat and is not universally applicable. 

Limitations:

Despite the progress in venom research and antivenom development, several challenges remain as there is still a need for cheaper, safer, and locally appropriate antivenoms, especially because the venoms of many dangerous animals, such as certain jellyfish and spiders, are still not fully studied and can have adverse effects. Access to antivenoms is often limited in rural areas, putting people at greater risk of serious illnesses due to envenomation.  Additionally, even well-known venom toxins can have unexpected effects in humans, underscoring the need for careful testing before use.

Conclusion:

To conclude, understanding venom is important for scientific progress, as it is not only useful for designing effective antivenoms but also for discovering new diagnostics, research tools, and livesaving medicines. As naturally occurring libraries of rare and specific molecules, they have endless applications, and through a future of research and development, venom can continue to provide both life-saving therapies and valuable tools for science.

Additional Sources:

World Health Organization. Antivenoms. WHO, 2021, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/snakebite-envenoming

Harvey, Alan L. Snake Toxins and Their Use in Pharmacology. Pharmacological Reviews, vol. 58, no. 4, 2006, pp. 603–637, https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.58.4.3

Oliveira, A. L., et al. “The Chemistry of Snake Venom and Its Medicinal Potential.” Nature Reviews Chemistry, 2022, pp. 1–26, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41570-022-00393-7